Historiography and Entheogens
Evaluating the importance of shamanism in a modern historical context.
Entheogen: A term more commonly referred to in the Western vernacular as “psychedelic drugs”. For the purposes of this essay, the revised term entheogen will be used, coined by ethnobotanist R. Gordon Wasson meaning “God generated within.”
The historical importance of shamanism has been overlooked by mainstream historiography, which exhibits little concern for its contribution to the development of historical and religious schools of thought. Shamanism is an ancient spiritual practice involving a practitioner who is believed to communicate with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness. Shamanic practices have been a core element of indigenous culture across the globe, forming the basis of modern religion. However, the achievement of these altered states of consciousness often involves the use of entheogens, considered taboo in the Western world.
Western historiography boasts of its commitment to von Ranke’s ‘wie es eigentlich gewesen’, whilst overlooking the historical practice of shamanism. The cultural destruction of colonialism, leaving a legacy of intergenerational trauma, tore apart and demonised the ‘uncivilised’ practices of shamanism. Furthermore, it was made a mockery of by Westerners in the counterculture decades, who exploited entheogenic plants as recreational ‘drugs’, estranged from their original medicinal and spiritual context. Furthermore, the complex nature of shamanism, which delves into metaphysical realms left vastly untouched by Western empiricism, has been deemed ‘unscientific’ and ‘irrational’ resulting in a lack of contemporary discourse. Ironically, the omission of shamanism from history is in of itself irrational, since “…the rejection of any source of evidence is always treason to that ultimate rationalism which pushes forward science and philosophy alike.” (Alfred North Whitehead, 1929)
Since the dubious Euro-centric gaze has delegated shamanism to the footnotes of history, I aim to show that shamanism should be valued for its role in a modern historical context, as its study provides profound insight into indigenous knowledge and epistemologies. Opposed to a dichotomised approach to the past, my essay aims to reconcile the role of the shaman and the historian, broadening the Western historiographical perspective.
“History is a process of awakening…
The plants that produce visions can function — for those of us who have inherited the New World Order of barren materialism, cut off from our spiritual heritage by a spiteful culture that gives us nothing but ashes — as the talismans of recognition that awaken our minds to reality.”
(Pinchbeck, D 2003)
Historiography and its privileging of sources which are in alignment with the ocularcentric preferences of Western historians has denied the existence of histories illustrated by the oral tradition associated with shamanism. Evidence suggests that the consumption of entheogenic plants for spiritual and religious purposes is as old as human history and its use has remained vastly unaltered. However, these practices have been underestimated and overlooked by Western historians, due to a quasi-ethical ‘anti drug’ bias. In other words, despite shamanism’s remnants being discovered in almost every corner of the globe, Western historiography remains ignorant to its presence. Examples of these cultures include but are not limited to; Amazonian and Central American cultures such as the Aztecs, Mayans and Incas, the Hellenistic world, Scandinavian groups, African native cultures such as the Bwiti cult, Hindu, Indian and Tibetan cultures and the First Nations Peoples of Australia. The role of the shaman is nuanced and not static, varying from culture to culture. However, some of the main themes across the shamanistic practice include; spiritual healing, contacting spirits and ancestors, medicinal purposes, to reach Enlightenment or other planes of existence and to become a master shaman. Essentially, they are liaisons to the supernatural realm, who often administer entheogens.
E.H. Carr’s analogy that history is like food: “The historian collects them [facts], takes them home and cooks and serves them in whatever style appeals to him,” reflects the Western appetite of ocularcentrism, where physical sources and documentation are valued over traditional oral history and mystical interpretations of the past. Nonetheless, the entheogenic experience and imagination, similar across a myriad of historical contexts, is testament to the potential of the role of entheogens in the formation of numerous archetypes across mythology and religion. However, political anti drug prejudice has extended itself into the academic world, as —
“…academia shares with popular culture the widespread prejudice that both mystical experience and those who believe in them are necessarily and unavoidably irrational.” (D Merkur)
In conjunction with the detrimental impact of colonialism destroying sacred oral traditions, we have silenced the voice of the shaman, thus resulting in Western historiography excluding indigenous epistemologies.
Academic discourse surrounding the ritual use of entheogenic plants is sparse and certainly not within the scope of mainstream historiography. However, historical debate regarding shamanism is gradually writhing its way into the collective consciousness of historians and academics alike. A vast collection of theories have been proposed by a range of historians, anthropologists and scientists regarding the significance of entheogens within history.
Some historical works such as “Shamanism, History and the State” seek to validate the ancient use of entheogens within a Western empiricist framework. Since shamanism is so far stretching, its study is applicable and appealing to many academic disciplines. Rick Strassman’s (M.D.) 2001 work “DMT: The Spirit Molecule” details extensive research into the biology of mystical experiences; legitimising within an empiricist lens the value of entheogens. The evidence Strassman uncovered through his research has been a monumental step towards understanding the role of shamanism in history.
One proposition from Terence McKenna — famous in popular historical discourse — is that accidental ingestion of entheogens is the most plausible explanation for the “relatively rapid advance from spiritually benign primates to sentient, spirit worshipping humans” — the Cognitive Revolution. Religious historian Dan Merkur claims that the Old Testament miraculous bread ‘manna’ was an entheogenic fungus, given to the Israelites and responsible for inspiring early Biblical scriptures. Merkur argues that manna, “was used to induce religious experiences as a matter of public knowledge in the era from Moses through David,” but later became encoded in esoteric writings, removed from the public sphere. The scholars Stella Kramsrisch and Wendy O’Flaherty have identified the plant god Soma of the ancient Aryans, as the entheogenic mushroom, amanita muscaria. Soma was a catalyst of inspiration for the original Hindu Veda texts, the foundation of belief systems Hinduism and Buddhism. An important detail that most historians have ignored is that during rituals in ancient Greece, celebrating Dionysus (also known as Bacchus) God of wine, ritual madness, ecstasy and altered states of consciousness, involved the famous drink kykeon. It is hypothesized that kykeon contained ergot alkaloids from wheat or barley, containing psychoactive properties similar to LSD.
Modern scientific study, notably the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS) has shown promising results that entheogens can be used to effectively treat a range of mental illnesses such as post traumatic stress disorder, depression, anxiety, drug addiction and various eating disorders. Renowned psychiatrist Stanislov Groff believes that entheogens, when used responsibly, would be for psychiatry what the microscope is for biology or what the telescope is for astronomy. Despite extensive evidence showing the invaluable role of shamanism and entheogens in history, the general Western tendency to,
“attract individuals who use rationality as a psychological defense against discomfort with ambiguity, paradox or strong emotion,” (D Merkur)
deems the historical study of shamanism as irrational. Blocked by its blind faith in materialism, the Western perspective largely ignores the validity of shamanism, deeming its history as trivial. This is testament to Strachey’s idea that “Ignorance is the first requisite of the historian, ignorance which simplifies and clarifies, which selects and omits.”
Nonetheless, the voice of the shaman is one that demands to be heard and incorporated into historiography.
The ceremonial consumption of an entheogenic brew created in the Amazon named “Ayahuasca” containing the tryptamine DMT (produced in the human brain) is one of the most important practices in Amazonian shamanism. The brew is a combination of two plants, which separately have no psychoactive effects. Its precise origin is shrewd in esoteric mystery, left to the oral tradition of ‘Mother Ayahuasca’. To this day, Ayahuasca ceremonies are facilitated by shamans throughout the Amazon, as it remains a longstanding cultural tradition. Shamans of the Amazon will claim that all of their epistemologies, all of their understanding of the plant and spirit world, comes from Ayahuasca.
Within the Napo Runa tribe, Ayahuasca is used in healing ceremonies and for divination purposes. Ayahuasca is also used to locate missing persons, game animals and to know the intentions of enemies. However, its most important role is its function as a mediator and translator between the human and the plant world. The Napo Runa tribe believes that when enough is learnt from Ayahuasca, you realise that all plants are visionary, not just the few with powerful chemicals such as DMT. Ayahuasca ceremonies often consist of therapeutic work, described by many Western participants as equivalent to ten years of therapy in one night. Their very nature involves exploring one’s inner world, described in literature such as Aldous Huxley’s ‘The Doors of Perception.’ From this arises the question of why entheogens are so demonised within the Western world.
As put by Pinchbeck, “Why should the private exploration of one’s inner reality, by chemical or other means, be considered a serious threat to a ‘free society’?”
The predominant issue for a modern historian studying shamanism is the accessibility of facts, within a context where indigenous culture is increasingly commercialised, eroding authenticity. This was initially due to the widespread damage of colonialism, which in many cases demonised shamanic practice as the ‘work of the devil.’ In the current milieu, capitalism is reconstructing shamanism as an inauthentic mosaic with missing pieces, a commercialised replica which largely excludes indigenous epistemologies. The rise of consumerist mechanisms such as New Age spirituality and ecotourism are leeching off of indigenous culture. This revives Marx’s image of capitalism as a vampire, feeding ruthlessly off of authentic human experience. Shamanism has made its way into popular culture, as Lindsay Lohan makes advertising deals with Ayahuasca retreats in the Amazon, and shamanist imagery is denigrated to a commodified aesthetic. This has led to an increase in unqualified, fraudulent ‘shamans’ who capitalise off of shamanic practices, harming both indigenous epistemology and individuals who unknowingly engage with these individuals.
Online streaming platforms such as ‘Gaia’ claim to educate the public about the role of shamanism within history, yet charge exorbitant prices to a predominantly Western audience. This consumerist culture makes the role of the historian increasingly difficult, since engaging with shamanism within capitalist hegemony often generates some kind of unethical profit.
There is a strong case for Western historians to listen to the voice of the shaman. They need to reconsider the significance of the oral tradition and dismantle their prejudice towards ocularcentrism. The historian needs to allow the shaman to speak for themselves, to tell their own history, to avoid a history solely written by people with no personal experience with shamanism. An open mind to the metaphysical world and benefits of shamanistic rituals, as well as a willingness to uncover parts of themselves hidden beneath the veil of Western social acceptability, will be vital in authentically understanding, and thus constructing the history of shamanism.
To a certain extent, the counterculture decades promoted an awareness and rediscovered appreciation of the abilities of entheogenic practices. The messianic preachings of Timothy Leary (PhD) and his allusions to ‘The Tibetan Book of the Dead’ most certainly brought the role of entheogens back into mainstream, popular history. ‘Hippies’ at festivals such as ‘Woodstock’ were adorned with a concoction of psychoactive compounds, inducing a paradigm shift towards consciousness expansion. Although taken out of their sacred context, the use of entheogens in the counterculture decades did spark hope for the acknowledgement of shamanism in history.
Behind the scenes of “turn on, tune in, drop out” was a relinquished academic scene, in which many Western scientists, historians, anthropologists and philosophers were realising the incredible abilities of entheogenic plants. Initially sparked by Albert Hoffman’s synthesising of LSD, for the first time in modern history Western academics were comprehending what their ancestors had discovered thousands of years prior. Approximately three decades (1938–1969) of academic research revealed the majority of what the Western empiricist canon knows about entheogenic substances, including their benign and unlikely potential for harm when used wisely. However, unsolicited access by the masses to these compounds resulted in excessive recreational use and abuse, eventually becoming a political weapon.
Exaggerated risks of harm from conservative governments have significantly contributed to the demonisation of entheogenic plants as a social evil. Although deemed in the best interests of the public, there is no doubt that the real concern behind Reagan’s “Just say no” policy was a political concern, not one of public health. The dangerous reputation created and perpetuated by disproportionately cruel penalties for their use has been helpful for law enforcement, yet it does not correspond to the evidence. Most entheogens are considered Schedule One drugs, categorised for having a high potential for abuse and no medicinal purposes — the same category as heroin. Numerous studies have proved that this is simply incorrect, since entheogens have an extremely low potential for abuse and a plethora of medicinal purposes, as demonstrated by both modern science and thousands of years of history.
Nixon’s 1969 political weaponization of all psychoactive substances of Schedule One drugs not only cut the brief Western academic exposure to entheogens short, but damaged indigenous communities throughout the world. It is currently largely uncontested that Nixon’s ‘War on Drugs’ was culturally inappropriate, ignorant and not based upon scientific fact. John Erlichman, one of Nixon’s chief advisors is quoted as saying:
“By getting the public to associate the hippies with psychedelics…we could disrupt those communities…vilify them night after night on the evening news. Did we know we were lying about the drugs? Of course we did.”
Despite this, entheogens remain as illegal Schedule One ‘drugs’ in most countries, continuing the phenomena that has characterised sacred plants as dangerous and addictive chemicals, used only by delinquents in society. This has resulted in the continued systemic demonisation and marginalization of indigenous groups, whilst annihilating the possibility of serious academic inquiry.
In order for the Western historiographical perspective to broaden, the prejudice of ocularcentrism must be addressed. The role and value of the oral tradition within history has been overlooked for far too long, resulting in the marginalisation of indigenous cultures, worldwide. The importance of entheogens within history must be acknowledged, as their subsequent research would be of great value to many academic disciplines. A reevaluation of capitalism and the ‘War on Drugs’ must be taken into account to liberate oppressed communities suffering as a result of these Western endeavours. Entheogenic plants must be reconsidered within a modern historical context, as their powerful properties are likely to therapeutically benefit individuals across the world. In order to achieve justice for indigenous cultures and shamanic practices, radical economic and social change is a necessary facet, the most thorough way of giving the shaman a voice in history.
Historiography must break apart from the Eurocentric gaze, in order to broaden its understanding of the past. It must reinstate the voice of the shaman in the “unending dialogue between the present and the past.” (E.H Carr)
References
Books
Carr, EH 1961 “What is History?”, Penguin Group, Melbourne, Australia.
Humphrey, C, Thomas, N, 1994, “Shamanism, History and the State”, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.
Huxley, A 1954, “The Doors of Perception”, Chatto and Windus, London.
Leary, T., Metzner, R. and Alpert, R. 1963, “The Psychedelic Experience: A manual based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead”, Kensington Publishing Corporation, New York, USA.
Merkur, D 2001, “The Psychedelic Sacrament: Manna, Meditation and Mystical Experience”, Park Street Press Rochester, Vermont.
Pinchbeck, D 2003, “Breaking Open the Head: A Psychedelic Journey into the Heart of Contemporary Shamanism”, Broadway Books, USA
Strachey, L 1918 “Eminent Victorians”, Garden City Publishing, New York, USA.
Strassman, R 2001, “DMT: The Spirit Molecule”, Park Street Press. Rochester, Vermont.
Wasson, RG 1986, Persephone’s Quest: Entheogens and the Origins of Religion, Yale University Press, London.
Journal articles
Blainey, MG 2015, “Forbidden Therapies: Santo Daime, Ayahuasca and the Prohibition of Entheogens in Western Society”, Journal of Religion and Health, Volume 54, №1, pp. 287–302
DeGracia, D 1997 “Psychedelic Drugs and the Awakening of Kundalini” Paragon House, New York, USA
Linebaugh, P 2014 “Karl Marx, the Theft of Wood, and Working-Class Composition: A Contribution to the Current Debate” Social Justice, 40(1/2 (131–132)), 137–161. Retrieved June 23, 2021, <http://www.jstor.org/stable/24361666>
Novak, SJ 1997, “LSD before Leary: Sidney Cohen’s Critique of 1950s Psychedelic Drug Research”, The History of Science Society, The University of Chicago Press, Vol. 88, pp. 87–110
Sayin, U 2014, “The Consumption of Psychoactive Plants During Religious Rituals: The Roots of Common Symbols and Figures in Religions and Myths”, NeuroQuantology, Volume 12, Issue 2, Pages 276–296, Istanbul University
Sessa, B 2006, “From Sacred Plants to Psychotherapy: The History and Re-Emergence of Psychedelics in Medicine”, The British Journal of Psychiatry
Small, D 2001, “The War on Drugs Is a War on Racial Justice” Social Research, 68(3), 896–903. Retrieved June 20, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971924
Winkelman, M.J 2017, “The Mechanisms of Psychedelic Visionary Experiences: Hypotheses from Evolutionary Psychology”, Frontiers in neuroscience, first accessed 12/01/21 <https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2017.00539>
